A Case Study of the Impact of Reading Interventions in Early Elementary School Grade Levels By Bonnie S. Smith A Dissertation Submitted to the Gardner-Webb University School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Gardner-Webb University Author: Bonnie S. Smith Jun 13, · Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering , 70(5-B) Gottschalk LB, Ortayli N: Interventions to improve adolescents' contraceptive behaviors in low- and middle-income countries: a review of the evidence base. Contraception , 90(3)– 18 Research on literacy development is increasingly making clear the centrality of oral language to long-term literacy development, with longitudinal studies revealing the continuity between language ability in the preschool years and later reading. The language competencies that literacy builds upon begin to emerge as soon as children begin acquiring language; thus, the period between birth and
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David K, dissertation reading interventions. Dickinson, Julie A. Griffith, Roberta Michnick Golinkoff, Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, " How Reading Books Fosters Language Development around the World ", Child Development Researchvol. Research on literacy development is increasingly making clear the centrality of oral language to long-term literacy development, with longitudinal dissertation reading interventions revealing the continuity between language ability in the preschool years and later reading.
The language competencies that literacy builds upon begin to emerge as soon as children begin acquiring language; thus, the dissertation reading interventions between birth and age three also is important to later literacy.
Book reading consistently has been found to have the power to create interactional contexts that nourish language development. Researchers, pediatricians, and librarians have taken notice of the potential for interventions designed to encourage parents to read with their children.
This article reviews research on the connections between language and later reading, environmental factors associated with language learning, and interventions developed in varied countries for encouraging book use by parents of young children. The more you learn, the more places you'll go.
For roughly forty years, researchers interested in early reading and language development have studied the effects of early home and preschool experiences. Language has received particular attention because of its centrality to overall human development and its particular importance to reading development [ 1 — 3 ].
As researchers examined differences between the growth trajectories of children from different backgrounds, it became apparent that environmental factors play a major role in determining the speed and ultimate success with which children learn to read [ 4 ]. Some children, dissertation reading interventions, notably those from homes where parents are poor and have limited educations, face particular challenges in learning to read [ 56 ], dissertation reading interventions.
Developmental and cognitive psychologists probe the mysteries of language development and unravel the complexities of the reading process. Their findings have made increasingly apparent that particular kinds of experiences can play a special role in advancing language growth.
The humble act of reading a book to a young child has repeatedly been found to have remarkable power [ 7 ]. In this paper, we first discuss research that demonstrates the profound and enduring connections between language development and later reading, then review research on language acquisition, arguing that later language learning builds on prior acquisition; thus, earlier acquisition propels dissertation reading interventions learning, dissertation reading interventions.
We then discuss research on the effects of reading books with children between birth and age three and review research on the effectiveness of programs that supply books and dispense advice regarding their use to parents.
Reading comprehension is critical for long-term academic success and is dependent on language abilities that emerge early in life. When all goes well, these early language experiences fuel effective reading comprehension among school-aged children and young adults. Dissertation reading interventions illustration of the importance of language for reading would be reading a paragraph dissertation reading interventions many of the words were unknown to the reader although the reader could sound them out.
Comprehension would be seriously impaired. The dependency of reading on oral language is at the dissertation reading interventions of the simple view of reading [ 2 ], a long-standing theory of reading development, and the more recent Convergent Skills Model of Reading CSMR [ 8 ], that builds on and slightly extends the simple view. Both theories seek to explain reading comprehension and draw on many of the same prior studies for support, dissertation reading interventions.
The CSMR hypothesizes that initially there is a primary dependence on code-based abilities such as linking sounds to letters and analyzing the sounds of spoken language into small units [ 6910 ].
Increased attention to sounds along with knowledge of the names of letters facilitates the mapping of dissertation reading interventions units onto graphemes [ 11 ]. Later, when initial decoding dissertation reading interventions has been established, the semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic abilities that support language comprehension become of primary importance to successful reading comprehension [ 12 ].
The hypotheses of the CSMR were tested by assessing a large array of language- and reading-related skills among relatively early readers grades 2 and 3, and a group of older readers grades 6 and 7, who were from dissertation reading interventions homes. As expected, code-related abilities played an dissertation reading interventions role at both ages, but contrary to expectations, semantic knowledge was an equal and powerful predictor at both ages.
This finding and the results of work by other researchers [ 13dissertation reading interventions, 14 ] make clear that semantic knowledge makes an important contribution to reading comprehension and that later reading failures often can be attributed to weakness in language ability [ 15 ], dissertation reading interventions. New evidence from studies of twins points to environmental factors as primary determinants of emerging competencies related to language, reading, and schooling success.
One study of 7, twins, roughly half of whom were identical and half fraternal, revealed that language development and reading ability are largely determined by environmental factors [ 16 ]. Another study of a representative sample of twins born between April and December in the Greater Montreal area collected measures of parental reading when children were 19 months old and assessed school readiness at age 63 months [ 18 ].
This study and another analysis of the same data set dissertation reading interventions 19 ] revealed that school readiness was primarily determined by environmental factors and that language plays an important role in predicting school readiness.
Important as vocabulary is, a dissertation reading interventions focus on it risks reifying one element of a complex system and overlooks the contributions of the full language system [ 1 ]. Another study found that age four language predicted grade two reading comprehension and that grammatical knowledge accounted for more variance than vocabulary [ 20 ].
Another strand of evidence highlights the subtle and pervasive effects of language on reading. For some time, it has been widely acknowledged that the ability to attend to the sounds of language is strongly associated with early reading success [ 21 — 23 ]. The sources from which language awareness emerge are not fully understood. But, there also is evidence for the effect of vocabulary learning on language awareness. When children learn many words with similar sounds, their ability to attend to the sounds of language is heightened.
The process by which this occurs is referred to as dissertation reading interventions reorganization [ 25 — 27 ].
The effects of language learning on phonological awareness may well begin to be apparent in the years before children begin formal schooling as indicated by a study of 56 children who were followed from infancy into first grade [ 28 ]. Researchers found evidence of direct effects of early language ability on phonological awareness when children were beginning to learn to read and evidence of indirect effects of language, mediated by phonological awareness, dissertation reading interventions, on grade dissertation reading interventions decoding.
Dickinson et al. A core tenet of systems theory is that the developmental point when processes dissertation reading interventions first being fashioned into a stable, interconnected network is when changes have the most enduring effects on the resulting system. The blossoming of language occurs at the same time that other conceptual and behavioral competencies are taking shape, providing the opportunity for language to influence and be influenced by multiple developmental domains.
The far-reaching role of language in development has been stated by Tomasello [ 32 ]. Nelson [ 31 ] makes this point even more forcefully. She reviewed extensive bodies of research on conceptual development, theory of mind, memory, and narrative and linked developmental shifts to the language abilities that become available during this era. Once children learn language, they also acquire a powerful tool to unite seemingly disparate instances of objects and events in the world e.
That is, the provision of a common label for a dissertation reading interventions of non identical objects or actions enables children to form a category of these instances, despite their variability, dissertation reading interventions.
Language, for example, seems to make it easier for children to dissertation reading interventions their own thoughts, feelings, and actions or abilities that are essential to social development and school success [ 36 ].
Preschool children with strong regulatory skills are better able to form positive relations with peers and teachers [ 37 ], display greater social competence in kindergarten [ 38 ], and have better achievement in kindergarten and beyond [ 39 ] relative to their peers with poorer regulatory skills.
Indeed, the acquisition of expressive vocabulary was related to less aggression. Similarly, in a study of preschool children, Kaiser found a relationship between behavior problems and low language [ 43 ]. Similarly, Hooper et al. While these results are only correlational, they suggest that the ability to communicate to peers lessens the need to respond aggressively in a taxing situation. Thus, as Vygotsky long ago suggested [ 45 ], language is one tool that helps children learn to regulate their own emotions and behaviors and build relationships with others.
Language ability also has far-reaching consequences for later social and academic functioning. Next, we take this argument one step farther when we discuss the power of early parent-child book reading as a context for nourishing multiple aspects of development.
Book reading provides an ideal setting for fostering language while at the same time building strong affective bonds between parents and children, dissertation reading interventions. Book reading also provides recurrent occasions for parents to help their infants and toddlers learn to regulate their attention and responses to stimuli. Children benefit when they and their parent establish a positive pattern of relating while reading, as revealed by a study in which to month-old children were observed while engaged in book reading [ 46 ].
Further, children with longer periods of joint attention at 18 months were found to have stronger productive vocabularies at 24 months. The relationship between language and vocabulary at two years of age and later language at school entry and beyond has also been documented by Marchman and Fernald [ 47 ]. As language competencies emerge, dissertation reading interventions, they exert profound effects on conceptual, social, and affective functioning and build linguistic competencies that make subsequent language learning easier [ 48 ].
Language is a self-sustaining system that gathers dissertation reading interventions during the preschool years, dissertation reading interventions. There is evidence that language is an evolving self-reinforcing system even in the prelinguistic period. The language comprehension ability and the inclination of month-old toddlers to use gestures to communicate predict their subsequent expressive and receptive vocabulary [ 49 ], suggesting that early encouragement to communicate may have beneficial effects.
The use of child gestures at 14 months predicts their vocabulary at 54 months beyond the effects of socioeconomic status and even the amount of language children hear [ 50 ].
Drawing on studies of word learning from infancy through the preschool years, this theory posits that children use multiple cues to learn words and that the cues employed to learn words change over developmental time. These changes occur because children become able to use language cues such as morphology and grammatical context and rely less on pointing and guesses about the intention of the other speaker.
This use of syntactic cues to help detect something of the meanings of dissertation reading interventions varies among children; those with weaker language skills have more dissertation reading interventions employing syntactic cues to learn new words [ 54 ]. Children with stronger language skills are more apt to learn more words than those with weaker skills unless special efforts are made to provide redundant and explicit information about word meanings [ 5657 ]. In the years between birth and age five early, language competencies facilitate the development of conceptual, affective, and attentional capacities.
Language growth feeds upon itself and gains momentum during the preschool years. We now turn to consideration of how environmental factors influence the rate and course of language learning.
If one assumes that children are not learning many words before the age of one and that school entry occurs at age five, then we can estimate that children learn roughly 3. However, this achievement does not occur in a vacuum; children must hear much language from adults willing to explain and expand, including a broad range of vocabulary and sentence structures, to show this growth. In other words, dissertation reading interventions, children need to engage in many language-based interactions with supportive adults.
There are six principles that describe environmental factors that spur language learning, all dissertation reading interventions which can be activated as children hear books read aloud [ 60 ]. Consider how this might work. If a child is slow at understanding language relative to her peers, she might be processing one part of a complex sentence while the speaker continues to talk.
Eventually, a backlog might develop, and the child might lose some of what is being said. Less well-educated parents exposed children to far less language and a much smaller range of vocabulary than dissertation reading interventions parents. Other correlational studies also have found variation in the amount of language exposure different children experience and association between exposure and rates of language acquisition [ 65 — 67 ], dissertation reading interventions. Exposure to vocabulary is particularly likely to have beneficial effects when the input includes a relatively high density of novel words relative to total words [ 67 — 71 ].
Finally, dissertation reading interventions, recent research by Hackman and Farah [ 72 ] suggests that the language parts of the brain are affected by poverty more than other areas, resulting in differences related to brain structure at age five. Bloom [ 73 ] summarized research showing that language learning occurs best when talk is about objects or actions of immediate interest to children.
One study demonstrated that children dissertation reading interventions 10 months of age systematically assume that a word label interesting, not boring objects [ 74 ]. For children younger than about 18 months, dissertation reading interventions, studies of joint attention—that is, of times when adults and children attend to the same object or event—have found that adults who are more skilled in creating occasions of joint attention have children who have more advanced vocabularies [ 75 — 77 ].
Young children dissertation reading interventions from interacting with adults who offer prompt, contingent, dissertation reading interventions, and appropriate reactions to their utterances [ 7879 ], for example, parents who take turns, share periods of joint focus, and express positive affect [ 7780 ].
One study found that when children were 9 and 13 months old maternal responsiveness was associated with how soon children reached different developmental milestones e. Research by Hirsh-Pasek and Burchinal [ 82 ] affirms the relationship between sensitive and responsive adults and language and cognitive outcomes using the large longitudinal data set from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care.
Both parents and caregivers who demonstrated stable responsive behavior across time from 6 to 54 months of age had children who were more cognitively competent. No doubt it is not only responsive language that controls these outcomes, but also the affective quality of mother-child interactions such that affective responsivity in early childhood projects out to cognitive competencies like mental ability scores at age 4, school readiness skills at age 5 and 6, IQ scores at age 6, and vocabulary and mathematics performance at age 12 [ 83 ].
Responsiveness of parents in terms of diversity of language also relates to later proficiency [ 84 ]. Further, the degree of responsiveness is especially important for children at medical risk due to low birth weight [ 85 ].
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